Van Dyke Public Schools

Principles of Psycho-Educational Testing

Terms Used in Standardized Testing  

Following is a list of terms used in standardized testing as defined by Sattler (1990):

Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement.  A test with a low degree of reliability should not be
used. 

Representativeness refers to the extent to which the norm group is characteristic of a particular population.

Normal Curve is a very common type of distribution of scores.  Many psychological traits are distributed
 roughly along a normal curve.  Although a perfect normal curve is rarely achieved, small variations do not appreciably change the relevant statistical interpretations.  An important feature of the normal curve is that
 it enables us to calculate exactly how many cases fall between any two points under the curve.

Raw Score is the score an individual obtains on a test before it is transformed into a standard score. 

Subtest is a single test.  Most intelligence tests will contain a number of different subtests, each measuring a certain skill or skills.

Composite is two or more subtests combined.  For example, the Basic Reading Composite of the WJ III is
comprised of the Letter-Word Identification and Word Attack subtests.

Mean is a mathematical average of all the scores in a set of scores.  To obtain the mean, divide the sum of
all the scores by the total number of scores in the set (N). 

Standard Deviation is the extent to which scores deviate from the mean. 

Standard Scores are raw scores that have been transformed to have a given mean and standard deviation. 
They express how far an examinee’s score lies from the mean of the distribution in terms of the standard deviation.  For example, the WISC IV has a mean standard score of 100, with each standard deviation being
15 points.  A standard score of 85 would be one standard deviation below the mean.

Percentile Ranks are derived scores that permit us to determine an individual’s position relative to the standardization sample (or any other specific sample).  A percentile rank is a point in a distribution at or below which the scores of a given percentage of individuals fall.  If 63 percent of the scores fall below a given score, then that score is at the 63^rd percentile rank.

Age Equivalent is a score derived by computing the mean raw score of a measure for a group of children with
a specific age.  An age equivalent score of 9.5 on a reading test means that the child is reading at a level which is similar to that of the average nine year, six month old child.

Grade Equivalent is a score derived by computing the mean raw score obtained by children in each grade.  It is usually expressed in tenths of a grade.  A grade equivalent score of 3.5 on a reading test means that the
child is reading at a level consistent with the average child who is in the middle of the third grade.

Standard Error of Measurement is the estimate of the amount of error usually attached to an examinee’s
obtained score.  It is directly related to the reliability of a test: the larger the standard error of measurement, the lower the reliability.

Confidence Interval is a band or range of scores that has a high probability of including the examinee’s true
score.  The standard error of measurement provides the basis for forming the confidence interval.  A 95
percent confidence interval can be thought of as the range in which a person’s true score will be found 95
percent of the time.

Stanines provide a single-digit scoring system with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2.  The scores are expressed as whole numbers from 1 to 9.

T-Score is a standard score based on a distribution with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

Statistical Significance is the extent to which the findings differ from chance occurrence.  Convention has established the .05 level as the minimum significance level indicating that observed differences are real; such results would occur 5 percent of the time by chance..

            Sattler, J.M. (1990). Assessment of Children: Third Edition.  San Diego, CA:          
San Diego State University         

Description of Tests and Questionnaires

Tests and questionnaires used in a psycho-educational evaluation depend
upon the nature of the difficulties the student is experiencing.  In every assessment, School Psychologists will typically obtain measures of cognitive ability, academic achievement, visual perception, motor coordination, and visual-motor integration skills. Standardized tests are the most appropriate,
and are typically the only kinds of tests given by School Psychologists to determine a student’s functional levels.

Depending upon the student’s difficulties, Dr. Rickman (or any School Psychologist) may administer a combination of the following tests, rating scales, or questionnaires:

      Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery – Third Edition 

The Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-educational Battery – Third Edition (WJ III) is
a comprehensive test battery used for assessing cognitive and academic achievement skills in individuals aged 2 years through 90 years.  One of the
most important features of the WJ III system is that the norms for the
cognitive and achievement tests are based on data from the same sample of subjects.  This allows direct comparisons among and within a subject’s scores that have a degree of accuracy not possible when comparing scores from separately normed tests.  In addition to providing ability/achievement discrepancies, co-norming enables examiners to jointly evaluate domain-
specific achievement skills and the cognitive abilities related to those skills (McGrew & Woodcock, 2001).

The theoretical foundation of the WJ III Cognitive Battery is derived from the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities (CHC theory).  This is a multi-level approach to the understanding of broad and narrow abilities.  Broad cognitive abilities include areas such as Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc), Fluid Reasoning (Gf), Short-Term Memory (Gsm), Long-Term Retrieval (Glr), Processing Speed (Gs), Visual-Spatial Thinking (Gv), and Auditory Processing (Ga).  These broad intellectual abilities have also been referred to as Central Processing Skills.

The administration of the WJ III Cognitive Battery can yield measures in each Central Processing Skill area.  In other words, it yields a profile of a student’s performances across multiple areas of intelligence.  These areas of intelligence are differentially associated with academic achievement across the lifespan.

As part of his evaluations, Dr. Rickman administers selective subtests of the
WJ III Cognitive and Achievement batteries.  Descriptions of those subtests which are most frequently administered by Dr. Rickman, as adapted from
Mather and Woodcock (2001), appear below:

WJ III Cognitive Tests

Verbal Comprehension measures aspects of language development in spoken English language, such as knowledge of vocabulary or the ability to reason using lexical (word) knowledge.

Visual-Auditory Learning measures the ability to learn, store, and retrieve a series of visual-auditory associations.  On this test of associative and meaningful memory, the child is asked to learn and recall rebuses (pictographic representations of words).

Spatial Relations requires the identification of two or three pieces that form a complete target shape, a visualization-of-spatial-relationships task.

Sound Blending measures skill in synthesizing language sounds (phonemes).  The child is asked to listen to a series of syllables or phonemes and then to blend the sounds into a word.

Concept Formation measures categorical reasoning ability.  This test also measures flexibility in thinking.  The child is presented with a complete stimulus set from which to derive the rule for each item.  Immediate feedback is provided regarding the correctness of each response before a new item is presented.

Visual Matching measures an aspect of cognitive efficiency-- the speed at which the child can make visual symbol discriminations.  The child is asked to locate and circle the two identical numbers in a row of six numbers.  This task proceeds in difficulty from single-digit numbers to triple-digit numbers and has a 3-minute time limit.

Numbers Reversed requires the child to hold a span of numbers in immediate awareness (memory) while performing a mental operation on it (reversing the sequence).

Incomplete Words measures auditory analysis and auditory closure, aspects of phonemic awareness and phonetic coding.  After hearing, from an audio recording, a word that has one or more phonemes missing, the child is asked to identify the complete word.

Auditory Working Memory measures short-term auditory memory span.  The child is asked to listen to a series that contains digits and words, such as "dog, 1, shoe, 8, 2, apple."  He/she is then asked to reorder the information, repeating first the objects in sequential order and then the digits in sequential order.  This task requires the child to hold information in immediate awareness, divide the information into two groups, and shift attentional resources to the two new ordered sequences.

WJ III Achievement Tests

Letter-Word Identification measures the ability to identify letters and words.  For this test, the child is not required to know the meaning of any word.

Reading Fluency measures the ability to quickly read simple sentences, decide if the statement is true, and then circle Yes or No.  The child is asked to complete as many items as possible within a 3-minute time limit.

Calculation measures the ability to perform mathematical computations.  The items requires the child to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations.

Math Fluency measures the child’s ability to solve simple addition, subtraction, and multiplication facts quickly.  The child is presented with a series of simple arithmetic problems to complete in a 3-minute time limit.

Spelling measures the child’s ability to write orally presented words correctly.

Writing Fluency measures the child’s skill in formulating and writing simple sentences quickly.  The child is required to write sentences relating to a given stimulus picture that includes a set of three words.  This test has a 7-minute time limit.

Passage Comprehension measures the ability to understand what he or she reads.  Some items involve use of pictures.  The items become increasingly difficult and require the child to read a short passage and identify a missing key word that makes sense in the context of the passage.

Applied Problems measures the ability to analyze and solve math problems.  To solve the problems, the child is required to listen to the problem, recognize the procedure to be followed, and then perform relatively simple calculations.  Because many of the problems include extraneous information, the child needs to decide not only the appropriate mathematical operations to use but also what information to include in the calculation.

Writing Samples measures the child’s skill in writing responses to a variety of demands.  The child is asked to produce written sentences that are evaluated with respect to the quality of expression.  The child is not penalized for any errors in basic writing skills, such as spelling or punctuation.

Word Attack measure the child’s skill in applying phonic and structural analysis skills.  The initial items require him/her to produce the sounds for single letters.  This test requires the child to pronounce letter combinations that are phonically consistent, or regular, patterns in English orthography but are nonwords or low-frequency words.

Quantitative Concepts measures the child's knowledge of mathematical concepts, symbols, and vocabulary.  There are two subtests administered: Concepts and Number Series.  In the first subtest, the child is required to count, use numbers and concepts, and identify mathematical terms.  In the second subtest, the task require the child to look at a series of numbers, figure out the pattern, and then provide the missing number in the series.

            McGrew, K.S., & Woodcock, R.W. (2001).  Woodcock-Johnson III: Technical Manual.           
Itasca,  IL: Riverside Publishing Company.

            Mather, N. & Woodcock, R.W. (2001).  Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive          
Abilities Examiner’s Manual.  Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing Company.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition 

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) is an individually administered clinical instrument for assessing the cognitive skills of children age 6 years 0 months through 16 years 11 months.  It is comprised of 15 subtests, each measuring various facets of intelligence. 

The theoretical foundation of the WISC-IV is derived from Wechsler’s original Verbal-Nonverbal theory of intelligence (1939).  The WISC-IV reflects an increased attention to the importance of working memory and processing speed in the importance of cognitive functioning.  A complete administration of the WISC-IV yields standard scores in the following composite areas:

·         Verbal Comprehension Index

·         Perceptual Reasoning Index

·         Working Memory Index

·         Processing Speed Index

·         Full Scale IQ

            Wechsler, D. (1939). The measurement of adult intelligence.  Baltimore:          
Williams & Wilkins.         

Following are descriptions of each of the WISC-IV subtests:

WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Subtests

Similarities measures verbal reasoning and concept formation.  It also involves auditory comprehension, memory, distinction between nonessential and essential features, and verbal expression.  This test requires the child to identify the similarity between two ostensibly dissimilar items (words presented to the child)

Vocabulary measures the child’s word knowledge and verbal concept formation.  For the picture items, the child is required to name the pictures in the stimulus book.  For the verbal items, the child is required to give definitions for words the examiner reads aloud.

Comprehension measures the child’s verbal reasoning and conceptualization, verbal comprehension, and verbal expression.  This test requires the child to answer questions based on his or her understanding of general principles and social situations.

Information measures the child’s ability to acquire, retain, and retrieve general factual knowledge.  It involves crystallized intelligence, long-term memory, and the ability to retain and retrieve information from school and the environment.  The test requires the child to answer questions that address a broad range of general knowledge topics.

Word Reasoning measures verbal comprehension, analogical and general reasoning ability, verbal abstraction, domain knowledge, the ability to integrate and synthesize different types of information, and the ability to generate alternative concepts.  This test requires the child to identify the common concept being described in  a series of clues.

WISC IV Perceptual Reasoning Subtests

Block Design measures the child’s ability to analyze and synthesize abstract visual stimuli.  This test requires the child to view a constructed model or a picture in the stimulus book, and use red-and-white blocks to re-create the design within a specified time limit.

Picture Concepts measures abstract, categorical reasoning ability.  The child is presented with two or three rows of pictures and chooses one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic.

Matrix Reasoning measures fluid intelligence and provides a reliable estimate of general nonverbal intelligence.  This test requires the child to view an incomplete matrix and select the missing portion from 5 response options.

Picture Completion measures visual perception and organization, concentration, and visual recognition of essential details of objects.  This test requires the child to view a picture and then point to or name the important part missing within a specified time limit.

WISC IV Working Memory Subtests

Digit Span measures auditory short-term memory, sequencing skills, attention, and concentration.  The Digit Span Forward task requires the child to repeat numbers in the same order as read aloud by the examiner.  Digit Span Backward  requires the child to repeat the numbers in the reverse order of that presented by the examiner.

Letter-Number Sequencing measures sequencing, mental manipulation, attention, short-term auditory memory, visuo-spatial imaging, and processing speed.  It requires the child to read a sequence of letters and numbers and recall the numbers in ascending order and the letters in alphabetical order.

Arithmetic measures mental manipulation, concentration, attention, short- and long-term memory, numerical reasoning ability, and mental alertness.  It requires the child to mentally solve a series of orally presented arithmetic problems within a specified time limit.

WISC IV Processing Speed Subtests

Coding measures the child’s short-term memory, learning ability, visual perception, visual-motor coordination, visual scanning ability, cognitive flexibility, attention, and motivation.  It requires the child to copy symbols that are paired with simple geometric shapes or numbers.

Symbol Search measures processing speed, short-term visual memory, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, visual discrimination, and concentration.  This test requires the child to scan a search group and indicate whether the target symbol(s) matches any of the symbols in the search group within a specified time limit.

Cancellation measures processing speed, visual selective attention, vigilance, and visual neglect.  It requires the child to scan both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and mark target pictures within a specified time limit.

           Wechsler, D. (2003). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition.  San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration 

The Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration is an individually administered, paper-and-pencil test of visual-motor skills, which requires the child to duplicate several basic geometric figures by drawing them.  A child’s performance on this test involves fine motor development, perceptual discrimination skills, and the ability to integrate perceptual and motor processes.  Therefore, it involves both perceptual Input and motor Output.  Poor performances on this test may be indicative of perceptual (input) difficulties, fine motor (output) difficulties, and/or problems with integrating these processes. 

            Beery, Keith (1997). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: Administration, Scoring, and Teaching Manual (4^th Edition). New Jersey: Modern Curriculum Press.

VMI Developmental Test of Visual Perception

The VMI Developmental Test of Visual Perception is an individually administered, paper-and-pencil test of visual perceptual skills, which requires the child to identify duplicate geometric designs.   No complex drawing is involved on this test.  A child’s performance on this test involves the interpretation of visual stimuli rather than visual acuity.  In other words, it provides a measure of the child’s perceptual input skills, or the ability to analyze and synthesize parts and wholes of visual stimuli.

            Beery, Keith (1997). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: Administration, Scoring, and Teaching Manual (4^th Edition). New Jersey: Modern Curriculum Press.

VMI Developmental Test of Motor Coordination

The VMI Developmental Test of Motor Coordination is an individually administered, paper–and-pencil test of motor coordination skills, which requires the child to connect dots and draw between lines to duplicate designs.  A child’s performance on this test involves the ability to control finger and hand movements.  Therefore, this test assesses motor output skills.

            Beery, Keith (1997). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: Administration, Scoring, and Teaching Manual (4^th Edition). New Jersey: Modern Curriculum Press.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition 

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition (SB-IV) is used to appraise cognitive skills of individuals from ages 2 to adult.

A complete administration of the SB-IV will yield composite scores in the following areas:

·         Verbal Reasoning

·         Abstract/Visual Reasoning

·         Quantitative Reasoning

·         Short-Term Memory

·         Test Composite

            Thorndike, R.L., Hagen, E.P., & Sattler, J.M. (1986).  Stanford-       
Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition.  Chicago, IL: Riverside Publishing Co.   

Human Figure Drawing

The Human Figure Drawing is a paper-and-pencil test which requires the child to produce a drawing of a person.  The child’s response is scored according to the number of essential features (e.g., head, torso, arms, legs, feet, etc.) included in the drawing.  The number of essential features in the drawing is considered to be an indication of the child’s overall mental maturity or cognitive development.  For example, the well-developed four year old child can be expected to include a head, torso, two arms, two legs, mouth, nose, and eyes.  In the young child, these features may be added onto a stick figure.  Stick-figures in the drawings of an older child approximately beyond the age of five years would be more uncommon, and may be considered a reflection of mental immaturity.

In some cases, children’s drawings may be analyzed to determine the presence of emotional disturbance in children.  It is not uncommon that traumatic life events (e.g., physical or sexual abuse) are reflected in a child’s drawings.  Analyses of children’s drawings in this manner are used to corroborate other, more reliable information garnered from child and parent interviews, medical records, etc.

            Harris, D.B. (1963). Children’s drawings as measures of intellectual maturity:  A revision        
     and extension of the Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Test of Orthographic Processing Skills 

Orthographic Processing involves the ability to recognize words by their letter patterns and to apply the alphabetic principle to print.  Difficulties in this area often results in poor and non-automatic sight word recognition and spelling, even though the child’s phonics analysis strategies might be well developed.  The Test of Orthographic Processing Skills was developed in an effort to discriminate between children with phonetic and orthographic difficulties.  A child who makes age-inappropriate phonetic-based errors on when writing will tend not to have difficulties with phonics but rather, will often have orthographic processing problems.

The Test of Orthographic Processing Skills is an unpublished test, created and used by Dr. Rickman, which was normed in the Van Dyke Public School District.  It requires the child to identify correctly spelled words (“Real Words”) among a series of phonically consistent pseudowords.  If a child obtains a low score on this test then it is likely that the child has difficulties with orthographic processing and may require reading intervention which is different from phonics-based approaches. 

Gordon Diagnostic System III-R

The Gordon Diagnostic System is a microprocessor-based test of sustained attention and impulsivity.   On this test, the child is presented with a long sequence of numbers which flash at a rate of one-per-second on an LED screen.  The child is required to push a large button every time the number “9” follows the number “1”.  Errors of Omission, which are believed to reflect lapses in attention, are made when the 9 follows the 1 and the child does not push the button.  Errors of Commission, which are believed to reflect impulsivity, are made when the child pushes the button for the wrong numbers.

            Gordon, M., McClure, F.D., Aylward, G.P. (1997). Interpretive Guide to the Gordon              
Diagnostic System – Third Edition.  DeWitt, NY: Gordon Systems, Inc.    

Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales  

The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales was developed to assess adaptive functioning in individuals aged from birth to 18 years, 11 months.  It is a norm-referenced rating scale comprised of 297 items.  The respondent answers questions relating to the child’s current functioning in the areas of receptive, expressive, and written communication; personal, domestic, and community daily living skills; and socialization skills in the areas of interpersonal relationships, play and leisure time, and coping skills.  There is also a motor skills domain, where gross and fine motor skills development is assessed. 

Standard scores, age-equivalents, adaptive levels, and percentile scores are obtained in each domain and subdomain assessed.  The Adaptive Behavior Composite score is considered to reflect the child’s overall level of adaptive functioning.

            Sparrow, S., Balla, D. & Cicchetti, D. (1984).  Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales:           
Interview Edition Survey Form Manual.  American Guidance Service, Inc.

Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale

The Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale – Revised (ABES-R) was developed to assess adaptive functioning in individuals aged 5 to 18 years.  It is a norm-referenced rating scale containing 104 items, based on AAMR definition of adaptive skills developed in 1991.  The Home Version of the ABES-R is completed by the child’s parent(s)/guardian(s).  The School Version of the ABES-R is completed by the child’s classroom teacher(s).  Ratings are made in the areas of Communication, Self-Care, Home Living, Social skills, Community Use, Self-Direction, Health and Safety, Functional Academics, Leisure, and Work.

            McCarney, S.B. (1995).  Adaptive Behavior Scale – Revised.  Columbia,          
MO: Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc.        

Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale

The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale (ADDES) was developed to contribute to the identification of and service delivery to students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.  It is a norm-referenced rating scale with each item based on factor analytic research.  The Home Version of the ADDES is completed by the child’s parent(s)/guardian(s).  The School Version of the ADDES is completed by the child’s teacher(s).  Ratings are made in the areas of Inattention, Impulsivity, and Hyperactivity.

            McCarney, S.B. (1995).  Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale.  Columbia,         
 MO: Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc.        

Emotional and Behavior Problem Scale 

The Emotional and Behavior Problem Scale – Second Edition (EBPS-2) was developed to contribute to the identification of and service delivery to students with behavior disorders and/or emotional disturbance.  It is a norm-referenced rating scale with each item based on the federal definition of serious emotional disturbance and childhood disorders identified through factor analytic research.  The Home Version of the EBPS is completed by the child’s parent(s)/guardian(s).  The School Version of the EBPS is completed by the child’s teacher(s).  Ratings are made in the areas of Learning, Interpersonal Relations, Inappropriate Behavior, Unhappiness/Depression, and Physical Symptoms/Fears.

            McCarney, S.B. (2001).  Emotional and Behavior Problem Scale – Second Edition.           
 Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc.          

Teacher’s Checklist 

The Teacher’s Checklist is a comprehensive questionnaire produced by Riverside Publishing, which is often used in conjunction with the WJ III to gather information about the child’s classroom behavior and skill levels.  This questionnaire is completed by the child’s classroom teacher based on observations over the previous month.  Ratings of academic skills are made in the areas of listening comprehension, oral expression, basic reading, reading comprehension, math calculation, math reasoning, basic writing, and written expression.  Behavioral ratings are made in the areas of attention, impulsivity, withdrawal, activity level, organization, anxiousness, and aggressiveness.

Parent’s Checklist

The Parent’s Checklist is a comprehensive questionnaire produced by Riverside Publishing, which is often used in conjunction with the WJ III to gather information about the child’s early birth, medical, familial, behavioral, social, and educational history.  This questionnaire is completed by the child’s parent(s)/guardian(s) based on historical information and observations of the child’s behavior in the home setting.